Dusun Subpan Death Customs and Taboos

Synopsis

The Dusun Subpan people primarily inhabit the Lahad Datu district area. Their background shares similarities with the Kadazandusun and Orang Sungai ethnic groups in Sabah.

The distinctive characteristic of the Dusun Subpan people lies in their death customs, which involve cave burials. These practices continue to this day, setting them apart from other ethnic groups in Sabah.

The Ethnic Cultural Inventory Study examines 15 dimensions of Dusun Subpan ethnic culture:

• ethnic background, place and history
• socioeconomic activities
• oral literature transmitted across generations
• customs and taboos transmitted across generations
• beliefs and practices
• traditional musical instruments and dance
• traditional clothing and accessories
• wedding customs
• architecture and handicrafts
• traditional food
• folk sports and traditional games
• community festivals
• traditional medicine and traditional practices
• social hierarchy
• folk songs

Customs transmitted across generations and taboos

Introduction

This section describes the customs of the Dusun Subpan people, with particular focus on death customs (adat keuzuran) and birth customs.

Death customs (adat keuzuran)

Announcing a death

When death occurs among the Dusun Subpan people, the host strikes the gong with a distinctive sound called manawag. This sound informs village residents that someone has died. Upon hearing the gong, village residents gather immediately to assist the deceased's family.

At the time of death, all family members express their grief through crying. Village residents who arrive, particularly elderly women, also cry with a deeply soul-piercing tone. People believe that anyone who hears this will be moved to cry as well. The Dusun Subpan people call this practice galambat mangusoi or galiaba.

Bathing the body

When the deceased is female, only women may bathe her body. Family members of the deceased have the responsibility to bathe the body. Their beliefs dictate that when the deceased is a mother, her children must participate in the body-bathing ceremony.

During the bathing of the body, the children must seek forgiveness for any wrongdoing they committed. This practice is called paingkad sa usung.

The bathing area must be screened with cloth to ensure privacy. The bathing water must be contained in a gong. Following the bath, the body receives full traditional clothing and bridal-style decoration. The body then rests on 2 boards covered with sarong cloth. Before this, all edges of the sarong cloth require tearing. The deceased's head must point upstream and align parallel to the house's central pillar.

The torn edges of the sarong cloth are used to tie both wrists, positioning the hands close to the body. Both big toes also require tying to bring the feet tips together before rigor mortis sets in. A sarong cloth covers the deceased's feet, and the deceased's possessions are arranged beside them. A plate and either a stone or glass cup for the deceased's food are positioned on the left side near the deceased.

Setting up the body in the house

A machete with its hilt opened is inserted into the house wall at the position of the deceased's head. Dusun Subpan beliefs hold that if a cat steps over the corpse or lungun (coffin), the machete must also be stepped over to prevent the corpse from rising. An oil lamp and mirror hang in the same location.

Directly beneath the body's position under the house, usom (lime) stems and leaves must be placed. These prevent disturbance from supernatural beings or tinggalung (ghost cat). Once everything is in place, a person skilled in death customs (asumuh) strikes the gong at specific times. This gong sound during death is called tawag.

Historically, the body remained in the house during the completion of the lungun (coffin). Throughout this period, someone had to guard and stay with the body, sitting nearby. When the deceased had been married, the spouse had to remain constantly by the body's side.

Making the coffin (manatad sa lungun)

The Dusun Subpan people place great emphasis on communal cooperation for all tasks. Following a death, village residents with coffin-making skills collaborate to complete a lungun (coffin) for the deceased.

Historically, constructing the lungun required considerable time—2 to 3 days for completion. The duration depends on both the size and wood type selected. Coffin construction typically uses hard, durable timber such as upil (merbau) and tagas (ironwood). Round wood logs are hollowed and shaped using specific tools.

Before construction begins, one maker measures the deceased's body width and height using rattan. The lungun's upper section is designated kusoi (male), while the lower section is wainoi (female). The head and foot end sections are termed pandung. Upon completion, the lungun is transported into the house and positioned beside the body.

Placing the body in the coffin (manutub or mangarantop)

The ceremony called manutub or mangarantop involves placing the body into the lungun (coffin). This ceremony may only proceed once all family members have assembled to pay final respects and view the deceased's face one last time.

Before body placement, both inner lungun surfaces receive wiping with butak (clay) to seal the wood grain holes. Historically, natong (damar resin) was pounded and mixed to create glue for application around the lungun's lower edge.

Feeding the deceased

Once the body rests inside the lungun, unmarried or widowed family members feed the deceased by touching food and water to the body's mouth. Married family members face prohibition from this act, as people believe it will cause their spouse to die prematurely. This is termed kababalu.

When the deceased practised minggat (betel nut chewing) and mamapa sigup (tobacco smoking) during life, these materials must touch the body's mouth. Following this, these materials require disposal.

Trimming the nails

A family member of the deceased trims the body's fingernails and toenails. When the deceased had been married, their spouse must carry out this practice. During nail trimming, specific rules apply: right-side nails are trimmed individually and positioned on the left side, with the reverse also applying. Belief holds that trimming and separating the deceased's nails in different locations prevents disturbance from supernatural beings such as pontianak.

Smoking ceremony

Following nail trimming completion, the cloth binding the body's hands and feet is released and twisted. This cloth, called u'unut, is burned to produce smoke, which is waved from head to toe approximately 3 times. This practice aims to prevent the atod (spirit) of living individuals and evil spirits from entering the lungun. The ceremony for closing the lungun follows this.

However, the smoking ceremony occurs only when the mamulih ceremony is omitted. The mamulih ceremony recalls the atod (spirit) of attending family members and guests, along with evil spirits, through bowl striking. This ceremony prevents living persons' spirits from being trapped with the deceased inside the lungun, which people believe causes illness (tanggaman). This illness is thought capable of causing death without proper treatment.

Closing the coffin

Subsequently, family members take turns kissing the body's forehead, hands and feet, while attending guests view the body for the final time. The lungun then receives closure and rattan binding before placement on 2 wooden pieces called dadangol.

Preparations before burial

On the day preceding burial, all village residents collaborate to assist the deceased's family with burial preparations. These preparations involve numerous tasks. The host typically constructs a tambir¹ and tukad abai² to facilitate lowering the lungun from the house. The wood selected for tukad abai must be sap-free.

Food preparation

Historically, several village residents and additional family members embarked on wild boar hunting nearly a week before burial day. During the hunt, they brought rice, cassava and abundant salt for making tinamba (jerky). Paddy was also pounded for rice. A portion of that rice received fine pounding to flour-like consistency for making sindul (porridge). Sindul represents traditional Dusun Subpan food created from rice flour, oil and sugar. Meanwhile, other village residents prepared meat and tiwak (coconut heart) for cooking.

Food ingredients for the maransusak (death) ceremony require placement at the deceased house's central pillar area. Storage in the kitchen is prohibited except for raw materials like meat, and consumption must finish by the fourth day following burial. Their beliefs maintain that violating this taboo brings adverse weather such as thunderstorms, attributed to the deceased spirit's anger. The Dusun Subpan people call this bubuwak rumaiyan.

Other preparations

The roof section directly above the lungun's position is fashioned into a wooden frame resembling an inverted boat, termed kamou. This structure serves to hang sarong cloths and garments belonging to the deceased.

Additional village residents proceed to the burial area to construct tukad abai (ladder) at the tunon (landing) to assist with coffin lifting. They also venture into the forest to gather rattan for lungun binding.

Decorating (mangajaga or mangarugkow)

During the morning of mangajaga, unmarried women undertake umbrella decoration work using kaing marong (cotton cloth) in multiple colours. Remaining cloth is torn for its threads, which are then twisted and wound spider-web fashion on small cross-shaped wooden sticks for hanging on the umbrella. Flags in various sizes are also created from kaing marong with specific carvings in assorted colours and planted before the house.

On the evening termed mangajaga, everyone cannot sleep simultaneously—they must alternate staying awake to prevent tinggalung from stepping on or piercing the lungun from beneath the house. Belief holds that a cat-stepped corpse will rise.

During mangajaga night, attending guests, especially young individuals, create lintutud. They position their hands on the lungun and place a small cotton lump for burning. The cotton receives blowing and the resulting hand burn mark gets rubbed with betel lime.

Dusun Subpan beliefs maintain that lintutud transforms into a lamp upon one's death. More lintutud on one's hand supposedly provides more lamps for illumination in the death realm.

Day of burial

As dawn approaches on burial day, sindul requires cooking for serving to everyone. Subsequently, food for all participants also needs cooking before the burial ceremony. That same day, men skilled in the relevant work must bind the lungun with rattan. This work, termed mangaggiraut, demands considerable time for careful completion.

The bound lungun receives covering with kaing marong (cotton cloth) named sandakop. Different sandakop cloth colours carry specific meanings:

• red-green cloth signifies men
• yellow-green indicates women
• black-white cloth applies when the deceased is Christian

Food for the journey

Before departure to the burial area, rice receives wrapping in banana leaves for transport:

• rice in raun punti mauyau (young banana leaves) is intended for living people
• rice in raun punti nolonot (dried banana leaves) is meant for the dead

Departing for the burial area

When departure time arrives for the burial area, basal (traditional musical instrument) requires playing 3 times. The lungun receives lifting to permit the deceased's children to pass beneath the lungun in both directions. This practice observes the belief that living children send the deceased away but the living must return quickly.

Following this ceremony, the lungun is lowered to ground level, then positioned on the dadangol wooden pieces serving as base, which previously supported the lungun in the house. The lungun receives covering with cloth—songket cloth, loose cloth or batik cloth with unsewn edges—and sheltering with a decorated umbrella.

Journey by boat

The journey to the Dusun Subpan burial location, particularly to agob (cave) Batu Balos, requires alud (boat) use. Historically, the Dusun Subpan people had to gumauh (paddle) the alud to transport the lungun completely to the tunon (landing). Village residents arriving earlier at the tunon splash river water toward the alud carrying the deceased's lungun to drive away dead spirits atop the lungun. Their beliefs hold that during burial, spirits of long-deceased persons sit atop the lungun, making it extremely heavy for lifting.

Currently, village residents employ engine-equipped alud for transporting the lungun to the burial location.

Arriving at the cave

Upon burial area arrival, flags that accompanied the body are planted along the cave-leading road. Flag-bringing during death serves to honour the deceased. The lungun then receives carrying to the cave base and ground placement once more before rope pulling.

Historically, raising the lungun to the cave top involved rattan use. Dusun Subpan beliefs dictate that if the lungun falls during the raising work to the cave top, that lungun cannot receive lifting again. Should a resident fall while ascending the cave and die, their body cannot return home but must remain at that location.

Inside the cave

Upon reaching the cave top, the lungun is brought inside and positioned according to respective family lineage. Someone skilled in death customs then takes rattans prepared earlier matching the deceased children's height measurements. These rattans receive attachment to the deceased's lungun individually while mentioning children's names from eldest to youngest with babar phrases: bang manoggow sianu (stating the deceased's name) sak si... (stating the child's name), mangawat koh ganut.

Subsequently, food wrapped in dried banana leaves is opened and distributed throughout the cave while stating: "na…kauh baratai laid om baratai wagu, mukikimbir, mukakadut kauh yo sa akanon situ" (here...you spirits of the long-dead and spirits of the newly dead, together you touch and take this food).

Belief maintains this ceremony distributes food to deceased spirits. Meanwhile, food wrapped in young banana leaves is opened and simply left near the coffin.

While inside the cave, all present individuals must refrain from pointing at or commenting on anything visible, especially the small lungun belonging to Aki Manai Silong situated on the cave's upper right side. Following burial ceremony completion, everyone must depart immediately as prolonged presence is prohibited.

Returning home

Dusun Subpan beliefs require everyone participating in the agob burial ceremony to pick tree leaves before boat return. These leaves must be inserted into their respective earlobes. Spirits of deceased persons buried in that cave supposedly will not disturb them, as the spirits recognise them as descendants.

Delayed burials in the past

Historically, burial ceremonies required postponement until after paddy harvesting season for rice acquisition. Due to extended duration, the lungun was positioned near the river. Village residents constructed wooden supports for lungun placement (pakalang).

The lungun placement location also received roofing to prevent rain wetting. Beneath the lungun placement position, earth was excavated to create a hole for rina'at (liquid) drainage from the decomposing deceased. Village residents, particularly men, alternated guarding the lungun throughout day and night.

After burial

All burial ceremony participants must step over a fire lit before the deceased's house to smoke their bodies. Belief maintains that supernatural beings following them from the burial location will flee from the smoke before house entry.

Third day (karatob)

On the third day, termed karatob by the Dusun Subpan people, village residents collaborate to cook sindul, rice and side dishes for serving to everyone. Toward dawn, the former lungun placement location receives covering with a mat lined with white cloth. Dusun Subpan beliefs hold that at dawn that day, the deceased returns to visit family members.

Signs indicating the deceased spirit's arrival include:

• oil lamp flame receiving wind blowing
• white cloth on the mat showing earth dust or sand traces

Some ceremony guests possess the ability to see the deceased's spirit. In this ceremony, a shaman welcomes and telepathically communicates with the deceased's spirit.

Sending belongings (mamaratai)

The following morning, several deceased family members together with a shaman proceed to the grave for performing the mamaratai ceremony. The purpose involves sending the deceased's possessions, food and a rooster for release at the burial area. The group cannot remain long at the burial area.

After performing the appropriate ceremony, immediate home return is required and upon tunon (landing) arrival, the boat used for burial area travel must receive sinking (toggobon) in the river. Belief maintains that deceased spirits follow that group homeward. This action prevents deceased spirits from following the group completely to the house.

Fourth day (karatob manilaa)

The following day is termed karatob manilaa. Dusun Subpan beliefs hold that on that night the deceased spirit's guardian arrives to lick the former lungun placement location. According to shamans or elderly individuals capable of seeing dead spirits, the deceased spirit's guardian possesses a long tongue for licking and cleaning that place. The deceased spirit's guardian is known as Langgau Dilla.

Dismantling and distributing

The subsequent morning, the kamou (wooden frame) hanging in the deceased's house receives removal. All cloths hanging on the kamou are collected and positioned under the house stairs. Someone then lifts a dog for throwing from the house top downward so those cloths receive stepping by the dog. Following this, the deceased's family members distribute those cloths.

Simultaneously, all tambir and kamalid (constructed cooking places) receive dismantling. All remaining firewood from the death ceremony requires complete burning. When unused food remains from the death, that food needs distribution to family members or neighbours.

Taboos during death

During death, specific taboos require observance by the deceased's family and village residents. The taboos requiring observance are:

1. Animals like cats cannot receive free roaming permission as fear exists that these animals will step over the body. Belief maintains that a cat-stepped body rises to become a ghost.

2. Limes cannot receive bringing into the deceased's house as belief holds this causes the deceased spirit to become blind.

3. During the body's house presence, rice and water require preparation for the deceased first. Deceased food must receive placement near the lungun. Only afterward is food served to attending guests. Belief maintains that without food preparation, the deceased's spirit joins everyone's eating.

4. During death, storing or bringing deer antlers and meat, along with scaly fish, into the house is forbidden. Dusun Subpan beliefs maintain these items cause thunderstorms potentially leading to tingkorobon³ occurrence.

5. The body still in the house cannot receive unattended leaving. During that time, the deceased's closest family members must accompany the body or lungun until burial day as belief holds the deceased's spirit seeks their family members. Violating this taboo supposedly causes the deceased spirit to become angry and create problems like storms, and the deceased spirit will manifest.

6. The deceased's widow or widower cannot sit or eat together with everyone as this is taboo. They must wear white cloth for head covering. The deceased's widow or widower also cannot wear floral patterned clothing during the taboo period, approximately one month.

7. The deceased's widow or widower cannot consume itchy foods like aubergine and spicy foods as belief holds such foods influence the deceased widow or widower's behaviour (gugowon baratai).

8. Following burial and after karatob manilaa day, the house where maransusak (death) occurred cannot receive empty leaving for a complete month as belief holds the deceased's spirit frequently visits that house.

9. Pregnant women face prohibition from touching the body or lungun as this affects the womb's baby. Belief maintains the womb's baby will not move like a corpse and causes difficult childbirth for the woman. When a pregnant woman violates this taboo, they must retain wood shavings and some rattan used for lungun making or tying.

10. The gong used for body bathing cannot receive striking for mubasal (traditional music) before the deceased's siblings or family members remove the taboo (mu'wam).

11. During maransusak (death), neighbours cannot sing, play music or operate radios with audibility at the susak (death location). Custom violation results in sagit fining for the perpetrator.

12. All tambir and kamalid created during death require dismantling. Remaining cooking firewood requires complete rapid burning. Additionally, expenses not completely used during maransusak require quick usage as prolonged storage supposedly invites another house death.

13. When a wedding date coincides with or follows maransusak (death) occurrence, the wedding family must pay a custom termed tungkasulid. Following this custom payment, the wedding house may then play music like basal (traditional music). However, when the wedding received early planning and the wedding house already played basal, the host need not pay the tungkasulid custom—but this depends on wedding family discretion regarding tungkasulid provision.

Customs for welcoming the birth of a baby

Historically, the Dusun Subpan people utilised village midwife services for welcoming baby births. When childbirth time arrived for a woman, the midwife received immediate calling to the woman's house. However, some women approaching childbirth would proceed to the midwife's house for delivery.

During childbirth

During childbirth, the midwife receives assistance from the husband or another person to massage the woman's stomach (pasurung) from top to bottom for quick baby delivery.

When the husband is absent beside his wife during childbirth, the husband requires pillar climbing upon home return. This practice serves as an ancestral taboo condition as sagit (atonement) to the child and wife left during childbirth, and for preventing illness and evil spirit disturbance. Additionally, this practice represents a husband's dandi (promise) to his wife for safely birthing the first child, termed mananai, without his wife-side presence. This dandi receives husband performance for first child birth only.

Caring for the newborn

Upon baby emergence, the midwife gently scoops the baby's mouth to remove contents from the baby's mouth during womb residence. Subsequently, the midwife twists thread lengthwise for use as baby umbilical cord binding.

Before cutting, the baby's umbilical cord receives upward massaging toward the baby's navel, followed by twisted thread tying and cutting. The umbilical cord then receives application to the baby's nose and mouth. This practice serves as a separation sign between the baby and its umbilical cord which receives consideration as piris pusod (its navel twin). The midwife holds responsibility for providing that umbilical cord a name.

Handling the placenta

Subsequently, the inomol (placenta) receives washing before placement into a bamboo container for hanging under the kitchen. However, this placenta handling method receives increasingly rare practice. They prefer using an alternative method: washing the placenta, then positioning kitchen ash, kamburongoh leaves (galangal) and kabulai leaves. The placenta receives cloth wrapping, then tin placement and ground burial.

After the umbilical cord falls off

The umbilical cord will detach depending on the baby's umbilical cord size:

• when the baby has pusod podok (small navel), the baby's navel detaches within 3 or 4 days
• a baby with pusod ayok (large navel) experiences detachment within a week or more

The detached umbilical cord receives black cloth wrapping and hanging on the baby's i'indong (cradle). The umbilical cord cannot receive disposal as it can serve as medicine for treating the baby during sickness or fever through umbilical cord water soaking for baby bathing.

Protecting the newborn

A small baby cannot receive alone sleeping in the cradle. When no one accompanies the baby, sharp objects like scissors or knives require placement under the baby's cradle. The purpose involves preventing supernatural beings from approaching and disturbing the child.

Taboos during pregnancy

The Dusun Subpan people maintain several taboos for pregnant women. These taboos receive practice across generations, inherited from previous generations.

1. The husband cannot receive hair cutting during wife pregnancy as belief holds this causes hairless child birth.

2. When the husband or wife walks from the house, they cannot stop or return before reaching outside the house. Belief maintains that during wife childbirth, the womb baby refuses emergence as it will return into the mother's stomach.

3. The husband or wife receives prohibition from sitting at the door or stairs. This also applies to family members and guests arriving at a pregnant woman's house. They should enter directly into the house. Disobeying this taboo causes pregnant women to experience difficult childbirth as if something blocks the baby from emerging.

4. Pregnant women face prohibition from walking or stepping on ground during evening and night as their beliefs hold they possess a fragrant smell attracting supernatural beings' attention such as pontianak.

5. The husband or wife receives discouragement from eating fish possessing fins or poisonous spines. However, married couples can consume that fish type through initial fish grilling. Belief holds that fish type contains poison causing frequent baby illness after birth.

6. Married couples receive prohibition from eating soft-shell turtles or tortoises throughout a woman's pregnancy as this creates difficult childbirth. Belief maintains the baby will follow soft-shell turtle and tortoise head characteristics which excel at emerging and entering.

7. Several additional taboos require married pregnant couple observance. Violating these taboos supposedly affects the born baby's physical form. Among these taboos are:

   • the husband or wife cannot split wood already burnt at its end as this causes the baby's lips to split and become cleft
   • married couples cannot bend nails as this causes the child's legs to become bent

Conclusion

The customs and beliefs inherited from ancestors continue receiving practice today. However, Christianity and Islam influence adopted by the Dusun Subpan people has caused some customs and beliefs to experience modifications.