Birds and deities in Borneo

How indigenous peoples read messages from birds

Birds have been hugely important in the religious beliefs of people living in Borneo since ancient times. Many cultures around the world see birds as sacred, but the indigenous peoples of Borneo developed their own unique system of reading messages from birds. This system influenced decisions about farming, hunting, warfare, and community life.

This guide describes how the Berawan people of Central North Borneo read messages from birds. It compares their system with how the Iban people do the same thing. Both systems show that bird behaviour is connected to how these peoples understand the spirit world.

Who are the Berawan people?

The Berawan live in four villages in Sarawak, in the north of Borneo. These villages are on the Tutoh and Tinjar rivers, which are tributaries of the Baram River. The main villages are Long Teru and Batu Belah, where people speak similar dialects. About 1,500 Berawan people live in these villages today.

Neighbouring groups like those at Long Kiput and Kampong Narom have similar cultures and languages. They sometimes call themselves Lepo Pu'un, which means "original land inhabitants."

Most of this research was conducted at Long Teru, where traditional religious practices (called aded luna) were still commonly practised. In other villages, people had converted to Christianity or to a movement called Bungan.

Birds that carry messages

The chief messenger bird

The Berawan recognise many birds that carry messages from the spirit world. However, one bird stands out as special: the plake eagle. This bird is far more important than any other message-carrying bird. It appears in all their important decisions about how to read bird messages.

What is the plake?

The word plake refers to all hawks, kites, and eagles in the Berawan region. Any of these birds that fly in high circles above the jungle can carry messages. The Berawan prefer large, dark-coloured birds.

The Black Eagle (called plake tudok ulo or "crested plake") is the best message-bird. It lives all over Borneo, though it is not common. This matches what the Berawan expect: plake sightings should be rare. The bird's behaviour—flying in pairs, soaring over forested hills, and moving in smooth, rounded patterns—fits perfectly with how the Berawan read its messages.

A Brahminy Kite also appears in the area, but it is not suitable for message-reading. It flies too low and its reddish colour with pale head markings make it unsuitable.

All the Berawan augurs (people who read messages) agreed completely on which birds were real message-birds. This shows how serious and standardised this practice was.

Other message-carrying birds and animals

Less agreement exists about other message-birds. Different villages might recognise different birds as carrying messages. Commonly mentioned birds include eagle owls, trogons, various woodpeckers, and kingfishers. Some people also mentioned deer species and snakes as carriers of messages.

The sacred eight birds

Despite many possible message-birds, the Berawan often speak of eight birds as official message-carriers. This number is special in Berawan thinking, especially when they build prayer sites called tape. These structures have eight upright sticks with eight carved bird figures inserted into them, ensuring the spirits participate. The eight birds are the plake plus seven other birds most commonly mentioned.

How to ask birds for messages

Asking for the plake's message

The plake is different from other message-birds in one important way: you must actively call it. You do not wait to see it by accident. Other message-birds send their messages through chance encounters in forests or fields. But plake must be deliberately invited.

People call upon the plake when facing important questions. These might be about whether crops will grow well, whether a very sick person will recover, whether more deaths might occur, or why a hunter has had no luck. In the past, warriors would call the plake before going to war.

The ritual of calling plake

Setting up the space

Calling the plake is a serious undertaking. It is not done casually or for fun. The augur (the person doing the calling) chooses a location in early daylight. The process can take four to six hours in one session, or it can happen over up to three days. The augur needs good weather: any rain means stopping immediately, as inviting the plake during bad weather is disrespectful.

The location must have a clear view of the sky and surrounding jungle. A rice field knoll with shade or a riverbank spot works well.

Two sticks are placed to frame a small area of sky. The plake must appear within this confined space. The augur brings:

• a tray with rice bundles, hard-boiled eggs, a cigarette, and sweets
• two bottles filled halfway with water, with carved stick figures inside
• a chicken (often a tiny chick)

The augur lights a small fire and settles behind the two sticks, ready to begin.

The prayer and calling

The augur begins with a sustained high-pitched humming, followed by a rapid prayer spoken with careful patterns and polished phrasing. Good augurs are known for elegant delivery.

During the prayer, the augur mentions the chicken that will be sacrificed. They pull a feather from the chick and singe it in the fire.

After the prayer, the augur waits. Every twenty minutes, they repeat the prayer. If the plake appears, they begin the prayer again urgently. Others nearby hear this urgent tone and hurry to watch.

What the bird's behaviour means

The instructions are simple. Once the plake enters the augur's field of vision and moves toward the middle, it should circle (a "holding pattern" showing it is ready). The augur then instructs the bird to fly leftward with urgent voices.

If the bird flies left, this is excellent. The bird has followed the augur's instruction. The augur takes one water bottle, waves it after the departing plake, and blesses the water, investing it with protective power.

If the bird flies rightward instead, the response is mixed. Observers might say the bird is "playing," inexperienced, or has poor hearing. The augur tries again.

If the bird flies directly toward the observers and passes overhead, this is very bad news. The ceremony ends and everyone is disappointed.

The second attempt

If the first attempt went well (or was unclear), the augur tries again. Ideally, a different bird answers this call. Since plake eagles fly in pairs, another bird might appear. The second try should result in the bird flying rightward for a successful conclusion.

Multiple outcomes are possible. Bad news in either attempt is final. Good news in both attempts is the best result. Mixed results (good in one, unclear in another) can occur.

Using more sticks for complex questions

One augur faced a question needing a more detailed answer. His grandchild was very sick with strange symptoms: muscle spasms, eyes rolling upright, and a rigid body. The grandfather was unsure what ritual would help.

He used three sticks instead of two, pointing them in different directions. He explained the code to the plake: if the child was attacked by a spirit, the plake should appear above the left stick; if the illness came from a parent breaking a taboo, above the middle stick; if from something else, above the right stick. He also asked the plake to fly left to promise recovery.

After two days of calling, a plake appeared. From its flight, the specialists decided that a parent had broken a taboo, but the child would recover with the right rituals.

Who can call the plake?

At Long Teru, only two men regularly called the plake. One was elderly and a shaman; the other was middle-aged and not a shaman. No other adults attempted this, and women never participated.

There was no formal training to become an augur. Instead, men learned by studying the prayer language and gaining supernatural inspiration (usually through dreams involving the plake spirit). The main requirement was daring to try, as fear of public embarrassment prevented most men from attempting it.

Men who became known as "skilled at calling plake" received requests to perform this service. People paid them for their work. For example, after someone died, relatives arranged for plake-calling to ensure no more deaths would follow.

Despite joking language sometimes used when appealing to plake (telling it to leave its wife alone in bed or stop eating rice), this was fundamentally serious and potentially dangerous. Offending the plake could harm entire communities. Calling it frivolously earned public disapproval.

In ancient times, important warriors held the title "holder of omen creatures," sometimes divided among several men with different responsibilities.

Unexpected plake sightings

If a plake appeared without being called, this had special meaning. A plake crossing a canoe's path on the river predicted violence and recommended immediate return home. If it swooped from left to right, an elderly man faced danger; reverse direction meant a young man was in danger. A plake overtaking a boat from behind suggested enemy warriors were approaching.

Reading messages from other birds

Differences from plake

Reading messages from other birds is very different from reading plake messages. There are no strict rules. Instead, interpreters use imagination, personal experience, and vague guidelines. Lots of lore has accumulated, but everyone has their own interpretation style.

Direction matters

In general, birds seen or heard on the left side give weaker messages than those on the right side. One expert explained that certain birds seen rightward bring good messages, while leftward sightings bring bad ones. Crossing directly in front of a canoe always means returning home, whatever the direction.

Feather colours and bird calls

Symbolism often comes from bird colours. Some birds with red feathers on their head or breast suggest blood and are good omens when hunting. They predict large game if seen rightward, small game if leftward. However, these same birds near farms warn of accidental injury from timber-felling or similar work.

Some birds have calls that sound like Berawan death songs, so they warn of danger. Other birds have angry-sounding voices that predict encounters with dangerous animals or thunder. By contrast, some birds have "cool" liquid voices suggesting pleasant outcomes.

Personal interpretations

Sometimes interpretation becomes very creative. Two elderly men once disputed what a bird's call meant. One said it sounded like a rice barn overflowing with newly harvested rice—clearly good. The other said it sounded like nails being hammered into coffins of people dying from hunger—clearly bad. Eventually, the second man admitted that while he had always understood this call as danger, perhaps others received different messages.

This suggests that over lifetimes of observing birds, individuals develop unique relationships with message-birds. Different augurs might receive different messages from the same bird.

How people use bird messages

Unlike plake-calling, which only a few men do, most community members understand some bird interpretation. Each family apartment in the longhouse usually has someone skilled in interpretation, usually male but sometimes female. Different families develop their own special knowledge.

Choosing farm locations

Bird messages become especially important when selecting new farm locations. These creatures are understood to know the local land and spirits deeply. This knowledge is valuable for such an important decision. Slash-and-burn farming carries risks, and choosing the right location matters greatly.

Elderly men prefer certain birds. Generally, two birds bring good signs; two bring bad ones. A dead mouse deer on the prospective farm means leaving immediately. A certain snake also signals danger. If it leaves normally, a prayer site can reverse harm. If it disappears down a hole, the farm must be abandoned and a new location chosen.

Specific situations

Some messages only matter in specific circumstances. A deer vocalising the night before a wedding requires postponing or cancelling the wedding. If heard while travelling to the ceremony, it predicts whether the bride or groom will have a short life, depending on direction.

A certain snake usually signals misfortune because its skin pattern resembles designs on death houses. However, seeing it at a canoe construction site is exceptionally good fortune, suggesting the finished boat will be swift.

The key principle

No animal always means good or always means bad. The meaning of a sign depends on the situation and context. Meanings are not fixed: they change depending on circumstances.

Comparing Berawan and Iban systems

What they have in common

Both peoples share similar underlying beliefs. When humans observe message-birds behaving in meaningful ways, the spirits automatically have something to communicate. Messages never happen by accident. Humans are responsible for understanding meanings correctly. Message creatures always try to help humans. Unfavourable messages are just warnings.

Both systems use directional preference, with rightward being more positive. Both use symbolism based on bird voices and feather colours. Both recognise eight major message-birds.

How they differ

The Iban recognise exactly eight message creatures, no more and no fewer. Their chief bird, Singalong Burong, holds special status but is not treated fundamentally differently from the other seven.

The Berawan chief bird, plake, receives completely different treatment. It is called through ritual; the other birds are not. The Berawan have many more possible message-birds beyond the official eight.

The Iban have precise, standardised interpretations for bird calls and flight patterns. Nearly all Iban, spread across hundreds of thousands of people, share identical understanding of bird symbolism. The Berawan, numbering under 2,000, cannot even agree with immediate neighbours about message interpretation.

The Iban never call birds like the Berawan call plake. Instead, when planning important activities, an Iban augur retires to a jungle shelter and waits for messages to appear in a predetermined sequence. This sometimes takes weeks.

Spirits and the spirit world

What the Iban believe about spirits

In Iban belief, each message-bird represents a physical manifestation of a spirit with that bird's name. The chief spirit, Lang (full name: Lang Singalong Burong), lives with other bird-spirits in a celestial longhouse. All these spirits have names and known life stories, similar to Greek myths about gods.

Each spirit has responsibility for particular areas. For example, one spirit's father protects headhunting ritual equipment. The heavenly longhouse mirrors Iban villages on earth. Lang exercises authority over all.

What the Berawan believe about spirits

The Berawan spirit world is very different. One supreme spirit dominates everything. His names describe what he does: Bili Ngaputong (creator) and Bili Puwong (universal owner).

When prayer sites are built, this supreme spirit receives primary invocation. All extraordinary powers belong to this spirit alone, such as removing spiritual harm caused by breaking taboos. This spirit is the ultimate resource when all other attempts fail.

However, the Berawan spirit world contains many other spirits: some friendly toward humans, others hostile, others unpredictable. Ancestors who become spirits are important, as are spirits of particular places and things. The Berawan do not categorise their spirit world neatly. When asked about spirits, they often respond: "How should we know? We are only human!"

The Berawan acknowledge they have incomplete knowledge of the spirit world. They assume spirits have relationships and communities like humans do, but they do not insist on knowing details. They accept that mystery exists.

Spirit knowledge and borrowing

Berawan spiritual knowledge comes from several sources: ancestral teachings passed down, shamanic communications, and personal dreams. Different longhouses may believe different things about spirits depending on contact with shamans.

The Berawan are willing to adopt beliefs and practices from neighbouring peoples. They share some beliefs with many nearby groups. This cultural borrowing explains why a movement called Bungan spread rapidly through the region in the 1950s and 1960s.

The Bungan movement

During the 1950s and 1960s, Christian missionaries were very active in Borneo. At the same time, native prophets emerged claiming new spiritual revelations. They wanted to elevate a female spirit called Bungan to central importance in a reformed traditional religion. These prophets taught that old rules should be abolished and rituals simplified.

They presented this as both modern reform and return to ancient roots by removing unnecessary practices. Initially, this movement spread rapidly, with whole villages converting. However, the movement ultimately failed and actually helped Christianity spread further. Notably, the Iban never produced such movements and resisted Christianity more effectively than neighbouring groups.

How bird messages connect to spirit beliefs

The pattern in Iban belief

Both Iban bird-reading and Iban spirit beliefs show the same structure. The message-birds effectively map the spirit world. Singalong Burong represents Lang himself made physical. When Iban see Singalong Burong, they see Lang appearing in bird form.

The puzzle in Berawan belief

The Berawan case is more complex. There appears to be a contradiction: Berawan augural teaching says that message-birds only advise; they cannot directly help or harm humans. Yet plake, the chief message-bird, seems to be a spirit deity in its own right.

The relationship can be expressed structurally: just as the supreme spirit Bili Ngaputong dominates all other spirits, the plake dominates all other message-birds.

This structural relationship explains why plake sometimes appears to directly intervene on behalf of humans. A hunter once called the plake to restore his luck when his gun kept failing. The plake appears to have directly helped, not merely given advice.

This doctrinal violation results from plake's structural parallel to the supreme spirit. This correspondence inevitably elevates plake beyond mere messenger status to genuine spirit deity status.

Conclusion

This examination has described how the Berawan people read messages from birds and connected these practices to their spiritual beliefs. While the connection between message-birds and spirits is not immediately obvious, comparing Iban beliefs with Berawan beliefs reveals that message-birds and spirits correspond structurally.

Further research should compare augural and cosmological systems among other Borneo peoples like the Kayan and Kenyah. These groups maintain different spiritual beliefs from the Berawan and may read messages from birds differently.

This simplified version is based on a scholarly article by P. Metcalf about birds and deities in Borneo. The original research comes from fieldwork conducted among the Berawan and Iban peoples.